Solorzano, Daniel G., and Armida Ornelas. “A Critical Race Analysis of Advanced Placement Classes: A Case of Educational Inequality.”Journal of Latinos & Education. no. 4 (2002): 215-29. http://0-web.a.ebscohost.com.books.redlands.edu/ehost/pdfviewer/pdfviewer?sid=576965dc-9de8-49bb-8fc1-4e69fb3f1198@sessionmgr4001&vid=1&hid=4109 (accessed February 8, 2014).

In this article, the authors use race theory to analyze the availability of Advanced Placement courses and how they have an impact on the educations of Chicana/Latina students. The authors explore the topic of educational inequality, specifically in the availability of AP classes to various races and genders. This article asks three research questions: “How do school structures, processes, and discourses help maintain racial/ethnic/gender/class discrimination in access to AP/Honors classes? How do Chicana/Latina students and parents respond to the educational structures [sic] processes, and discourses that help maintain racial/ethnic/gender/class discrimination in access to AP/Honors classes? How can school reforms help end racial/ethnic/gender/class discrimination in access to AP/Honors classes?”

The authors needed to examine AP enrollment to look for disparities between various races, genders, and classes. They also looked at the average amount of AP classes taken by students who were admitted to UCLA. In this study, the authors focused on a particular school district in California that served a large population of Chicana/Latina students and obtained its records on AP enrollment. It is not clear how they obtained this data in the article. They also obtained data on UCLA admissions, but it is not specified where and how they obtained this data. I would have liked to have been told how their data were collected. To analyze the data, the authors compared the percentages of various races that enrolled in AP classes in different high schools in the same district. They also analyzed the average income levels of each school and looked for patterns.

As a result of this research, the authors found that Chicana/Latina students were underrepresented in AP enrollment. There was also low enrollment at low-income schools. It doesn’t seem as if they looked into gender, which is strange because they did include gender in their initial questions. At the end of the article, the authors offered recommendations. The K-12 recommendations included, “K-12 institutions must develop a college-going culture that includes, at minimum, the following six conditions: 1. A school culture supportive of advanced study and college going. 2. Student participation in rigorous academic courses (i.e. a-f courses and AP programs). 3. Student access to qualified teachers. 4. Student access to intensive academic supports. 5. The school developing a multicultural college-going identity. 6. The school’s connections with parents and community around advanced study.”

This research was a great start to a complex topic. Although the research clearly showed that Chicana/Latina students were underrepresented in AP classes, it did not delve deeply into the reasons behind this, which would be very interesting to determine. Additionally, they showed that schools with urban, low income students had low AP enrollment, but these schools did still offer AP classes. It would be helpful to know what is going on to cause the low enrollment to be able to make detailed suggestions to schools. The authors’ recommendations to schools are fairly vague and may be difficult for schools to accomplish without further guidance. However, these recommendations are a great place to start.

The research topic for this study looked at concentrations of different types of mercury in streams after forest clear-cutting. And the researchers asked the question, what is the comparison between the concentration of Mercury in streams draining from young forests that are clear-cut and streams draining from old forests that are clear-cut?

This study measured concentrations of mercury (inorganic and methyl, chemically shown as Hg” and MeHg) from a stream that drained 0-4 year old clear-cuts of former Norway Spruce forest stands (trees) and then compared those measurements to concentrations in streams that drained over 70 year old Norwegian Spruce reference stands (trees). The study essentially found that concentrations of mercury (all kinds tested) were significantly higher in the 0-4 year clear-cuts compared to the older trees. They assumed that the mercury was mobilized from the soil to the stream as a consequence of clear-cutting and they calculated that about 1/6 of the higher mercury concentration in the 0-4 year clear-cuts could be attributed to enhanced mobilization from soil. They calculated that 5/6 of the concentration was due to a new kind of mercury (Hg”). Logging residue as well as soil organic matter contributed to an environment for electron donors for mercury-creating bacteria, which in turn became more common. Therefore this new kind of mercury became stimulated and created through this bacteria and clear cutting. The researchers found this information through survey, ratio data.

The researchers sampled all of the streams once within a two-week period in August 2007. They collected 150 mL of stream water in acid washed Teflon Nalgene bottles and transported by cooler. To determine the concentrations of the different types of Mercury they used isotope dilution analysis. Essentially the analysis consists of multiple chemical experiments and tests. The final test determined the total mercury concentration by cold vapor atomic fluorescence spectroscopy.

This research was very hard to understand, especially if little to nothing is known about chemistry. Many chemical terms and elements were used without a lot of explanation of what the authors were discussing making it difficult for the reader to completely appreciate the research study.

Skyllberg, Ulf; Bjorkman, Mattias Westin; Meili, Markus; Bjorn, Erik. Elevated Concentrations of Methyl Mercury in Streams after Forest Clear-Cut: A consequence of Mobilization from soil or New Methylation? Enviornmental Science & Technology. 2009, 43, 8535-8541.

Greg H

Field Project 1: Finding Existing Data

Topic and Anticipated Research Question:

The dataset that I found included data on many species of migratory birds.  This data was the number of migratory birds recorded at various key junctions in their migrations, where the birds band together in large numbers.  This dataset could be used to analyze weather the populations of many North American migrants’ bird species are declining or growing.  You could also use the data to determine the effect of drought on the population of birds by locating data on the precipitation amounts in the summer breeding areas and comparing them to the recorded populations along the flyway from that year. The dataset that I choose is on the recorded count of the mallard because it is the most extensively studied migrant bird of North America and there was ample data provided.

Dataset:

1. 1.    What is it? The dataset is a list the number of migrant mallard ducks recorded at seven different key migration locations on the pacific flyway.
2. 2.    Who collected it? This dataset was collected by USGS, or the United States Geological survey
3. 3.    When was it collected? Data is available from 1960 when the first count began to 2013
4. 4.    Where is it available? This dataset is available at the United States Geological Survey website.
5. 5.    Form in which used? The dataset is available in an excel document format. Or displayed on a chart on the website.

Appropriate Dataset:

This data set is an appropriate dataset because it provides the recorded count of mallard populations traveling through the pacific flyway.  Additionally the it documents the past well and provides large amounts of data on past recorded populations making it ideal for a study of the growth or decline of the mallard population. So using this dataset one could very easily determine whether the population of mallards has been growing of has been in decline.

 Data Structure:

The data is structured by first choosing the bird in which you wish to find data. You then select the country and the flyway. From there the flyway is broken up into six or seven different points which funnel the migrant birds through mountain passes so as to get the most accurate population count. The data includes a chart provided by USGS or you can download the data in an excel format.

Data Extraction:

All you need to do to extract the data that you need is would be to determine which bird you would like to find data on, choose the flyway and the country and choose the years in which you are interested in.

Analysis Needed:

Simple charts and graph are all that are needed to display whether the population of mallards traveling through the pacific flyway is in decline or in a period of growth. A good way to show this would be through a line or bar graph by dissecting the data into its separate stages of migration, or creating a bar graph which compares the recorded number for each of the locations that they collect the bird counts.

To determine the what extent drought effects mallard populations one would have to run a regressions analysis of precipitation levels and recorded bird counts from the location. Maybe a multiple regression should be included and have other factors that like extremes in weather or temperature.

Greg H

Journal Exercise 2

Raymond Klaassen and Mikael Hake of Lund University performed a study of mortality in migrant birds.  It was published in the Journal of Animal Ecology in 2014 vol 83 pages 176-184 and titled “When and where does mortality occur in migratory birds? Direct evidence from long-term satellite tracking of raptors”.  Their study spanned over sixteen years of data collection.  To gather their data they affixed satellite transmitters; or banded 69 adult raptors, and found that mortality rate was six times greater during migration.  Most of these moralities were linked to particularly rigorous legs of their journey,  including the crossing of the Sahara desert in the Spring.   To determine the cause of the transmission loss several criteria were used, probable transmission failure, confirmed transmission failure, probable death, and confirmed death.  Using simple statistical analysis they calculated the survival rates by month as well as for breeding season, autumn migration, winter and spring migrations. The article does good work at showing its results in many different forms, including multiple types of charts and graphs, and even includes a map displaying the geographic distribution of the deaths.  While the study seems to point out an obvious conclusion of increased mortality during migration periods, it also sheds light on the  complexities of the death and migration of diurnal raptors. Their study found that the spring migration seemed to have a particularly strong effect on the annual survival rate of many of the diurnal raptors. This article was of particular interest to me because these researchers found a topic which many researchers simply glossed over, concluding that death was greatest during migration periods, but they delved into it and found interesting results.

http://0onlinelibrary.wiley.com.books.redlands.edu/doi/10.1111/1365-2656.12135/pdf

In the journal article “Fostering ‘Connectedness to Nature’ through U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service Education and Outreach Programming: A Qualitative Evaluation” by Stefan Theimer and Julie Ernst, the relationship between youth and outdoor education is examined. In this study, a comparison is made between students from three separate USFWS environmental education programs. The research questions examined were “Do the participants perceive that their program is influencing their connectedness to nature?” and “If so, what aspect of the program do they associate with influencing their connectedness to nature?”  In this study, “connection to nature” was defined as evidence of ‘emotional connection or affinity to the natural world’.

The first program (named “Program 1”) is a club consisting of 5^th grade students from the pacific region which meets every two weeks. The program focuses on activities such as biology, fishing, knot-tying, teambuilding and orienteering. The only outdoor activity in Program 1 is orienteering.

“Program 2” is an alternative high school program in the pacific region, made of high school students who struggle to succeed in a normal school setting. The school takes place on a fish hatchery complex, with hatchery staff mentoring the students through many relevant lessons and activities. The students receive both outdoor and indoor instruction from teachers, and have frequent access to natural areas around the facility.

“Program 3” is a field-based middle school program, located on a USFWS waterfowl production area. Certain classes of 4^th and 5^th grade students spend half of their school days at the site. The program lends students a hands-on learning experience, including duck banding, water sampling, long-distance expedition excursions, free-writing regarding their environmental studies, various outdoor pursuits, and repeated quiet observation activities.

Researches collected data by having volunteer participants participate in focus group interviews. Questions asked were focused around 9 different themes regarding nature: comfort, emotion, exploration, knowledge, observation, stewardship, wildlife curiosity, wildlife sensitivity and wildlife sharing. Results suggested that students from Program 3 scored significantly higher in each category.

This research could show a simple indication for the future of outdoor and environmental education: When teaching natural systems, outdoor exposure and hands-on learning is essential to forming a connection with nature.

Who researched:

J. A. Estes, M. T. Tinker, T. M. Williams, D. F. Doak

Where researched:

Western Alaska

When researched:

Received for publication May 27, 1998

Accepted for publication July 20, 1998

Research methods used:

-population surveys at Adak Island in the central Aleutian archipelago

-population surveys at Little Kiska

-population surveys at Amchitka

-population surveys at the Kagalaska Islands

-Aerial surveys of the Aleutian archipelago conducted by the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service in 1965 and 1992

-Studies of radio-tagged sea otters at Amchitka Island from 1992 to 1994

-Studies of radio-tagged sea otters at Adak Island from 1995 to 1996

-Contrasting otter population and trends in Adak Island with population and trends in Clam Lagoon

-Compared actual number of observed orca attacks on sea otters with expected number of witnessed attacks (based on estimations of how many orca attacks must drive the sea otter population decline rates)

-Kelp forests were surveyed at 28 randomly selected sites at Adak Island in 1987 and compared to surveys done in 1997

What they found:

Due to the maritime fur trade of the late 1800s to early 1900s, the sea otter (Enhydra Lutris) population was in great decline. Almost extinct, the North Pacific felt the need to act and created the International Fur Seal Treaty in 1911 in hopes of re-growing the sea otter population. By the 1970s, the sea otter population had somewhat bounced back, particularly in the North Pacific. However, in the late 1980s marine biologists once again noticed a decline in the population in Western Alaska. Through eyewitness reports, studies of radio-tagged sea otters, sea otter population surveys and random kelp forest surveys, scientists noticed a decline of about 25% of the sea otter population in Western Alaska from 1987 to 1997. This decline in population was evidenced by the decline of kelp forests and a sharp increase in sea urchin biomass in this region. This drastic decline in a sea otter population can be explained by three phenomena: redistribution, increased mortality or reduced fertility. Studies of radio-tagged sea otters showed that fertility rates were similar to those of stable populations and the sea otters of Western Alaska had not redistributed. Therefore, the sea otters must have been declining due to an increased mortality rate.

This increased mortality rate is most likely due to killer whale (Orcinus Orca) predation. This is evidenced by 10 eyewitness reports of killer whales attacking sea otters, which had never been observed before 1991. Weighing in the number of eyewitness reports, the chances of witnessing this phenomenon and the number of days this scientific team spent observing sea otters; J. A. Estes, M. T. Tinker, T. M. Williams, and D. F. Doak concluded that the sharp decline of the sea otter population in Western Alaska was most likely due to killer whale predation.

What this means/Why it’s important:

Killer Whales had never been known to hunt sea otters before the 1990s. However, outsourcing to a new prey is not an unexpected act.  Due to drastic overfishing in the North Pacific, pinniped populations have declined forcing killer whales to find new food sources. Knowing the intelligence levels of these marine mammals, it is not surprising that they would know to turn to a new, abundant food source readily available to them. However, what is surprising, and important, about this research is how a species from one ecosystem can have such a large effect on a completely separate ecosystem. Killer whales (from the oceanic ecosystem) are completely changing the coastal ecosystem of Western Alaska by killing off the keystone species (sea otters). This decline in sea otters is causing kelp forests to disappear and sea urchins to become the most abundant species. This shift from a three-trophic-level system to a four-trophic-level system has completely shifted the dynamic of the coastal ecosystem and shows just how big an influence a top predator can have on an entire food chain.

In addition to the findings of the research, we can learn from the research itself. These findings could not have been uncovered if it weren’t for the steady, slow process of a 10 year study, showing the need for large-scale approaches in some research (particularly ecological research).

The article on “Carry-over effects from breeding modulate the annual cycle of a long distance migrant: An experimental demonstration” by Paulo Catry and his fellow researchers covers a facet of the life history of the Cory Shearwater.  It was published in the journal Ecology Vol. 94, No. 6, pp. 1230-1235. The facet of the migratory bird’s life history that the researchers examined is the effect of a failed breeding season upon the migratory birds, specifically their behavior, survival, and their subsequent geographic distribution. Paulo and his A team gathered data on this by removing the fledgling chick from the nest and banding the birds, thus synthesizing an unsuccessful breeding season in 2009. The A team then proceeded to band several pairs of successful adult shearwaters in 2009 to function as a control.  In
2010 the A team allowed the manipulated nesting pairs from 2009 to breed successfully to root out any unsavory concerns. The A team than simply placed the data upon a map, each bird supplying one data point, except the birds which were manipulated, which served as two in their successful and unsuccessful years. The A team toiled day in and day out to discover the hidden changes in behavior and geographic distribution between the successful and unsuccessful breeders. Well it didn’t take much toiling the data spoke for itself and a surprising 4/7 of the breeders which were unsuccessful chose to stay in the Canary channel rather than to proceed with the rest of the flock further south to the wintering grounds compared to the successful pairs of which 0/14 chose to stay.  The ever hopeful Cory’s Shearwaters that were manipulated/unsuccessful in their breeding season spent their time pampering themselves, molting early, and making sure they were in prime mating condition for the next breeding season in which they will surely excel. But perhaps the biggest finding of all was the fact that these unsuccessful pairs arrived to breeding grounds earlier than did the successful pairs, or their successful selves in the latter year. This is a great boon to their chances of passing on their genetics since many times a good territory is a source of great competition.

Deyashish Shriyastaya. Drip irrigation scheduling, growth and yield of sweet orange. Environment and Ecology, 24(4), 714-719.

Drip irrigation is a method that can save water by controlling the rate water drips to the roots of plants.  The drip irrigation design utilizes many different spouts redirecting water to different plants.  Each water spout’s drip schedule and rate of drip can be varied.

While providing the ability to micro-manage water-use, drip irrigation also conserves water by reducing the rate of water-use.  Sprinklers cover a surface area and have to use excess water to provide minimum nutrients to plants.  Drip irrigation delivers water directly to the root of individual plants, and does not cover a large surface of un-used farm land.

Drip irrigation’s capabilities have proven to be promising and is an upcoming method in orange farming.  During an experiment, orange trees were compared when using different schedules and rates or irrigation.  This experiment was to analyze the different growths of the trees and the different outcomes of fruit-growth.

The research question asks, what is the most efficient method of using drip irrigation for orange-farming?  The data compared was both qualitative and quantitative.  When comparing fruit quality, it was preference and qualitative data.  When comparing the growth of the trees, the data was measurable and quantitative. The data gathering method includes interview for qualitative data, and observe measurement records for quantitative data.   The data is then analyzed by comparison amongst tables.

This research is interesting, because it shows us how we can be more efficient with our water when crop-growing.  Not only does drip allow us to conserve water, but to control the way we use it.  By allowing us to control the rate and schedule of our irrigation, we can control the rate our plant and fruit grow.  Drip irrigation provides many new abilities to irrigation, and can be utilized by the University of Redlands.