This research proposal, “Improving Wind Turbine Efficiency Through Whales-inspired Blade Design”, was done by a student at Harvey Mudd College in Claremont, California. The proposed research in this proposal is an investigation of improvement to traditional horizontal-axis wind turbines by simulating the bumps on humpback whales’ fins into blades of the turbine. The idea is that this will create blades that are more aerodynamic through creating turbulence in the airflow behind the grooves. The focus of the project is designing, creating a prototype and then testing a horizontal-axis wind turbine with these blades inspired by the whales. In addition this research could show the differences between this new prototype and a traditional horizontal-axis wind turbine in the turbulent flow field as well as in the energy efficiency. The hopeful outcome is that the new prototype incorporating whale-inspired blades will prove to be more energy efficient. According to Alex Krause, the author along with faculty advisers, this new prototype is a good solution to the increasing need for alternative and sustainable sources of energy. Currently converting wind energy into electricity is not as efficient as it could be and still needs some engineering design innovation.

The research topic of this proposal is the investigation of the turbulent flow field and aerodynamics of current wind turbines as well as of these new blades in order to improve efficiency of wind turbine energy conversion. Part of this research project would, as stated above, be designing a prototype and then testing it as well as refining the prototype for application in wind turbines. The research question of this proposal is; would whale-inspired blades versus the traditional blades used in horizontal-axis wind turbines be more efficient at energy conversion?

The type of data needed for this research is observational data, observing prototypes and what works and what doesn’t. The data gathering method consists of basic trial and error. The author plans to model the prototype out of wood to start and use models from simulating software in order to see how the new blade will work.

This research is very relevant because it is a student working with faculty as well as a graduate student and proposing his research he will do in the near future. This research is also significant because it’s not only looking into alternative sources of energy which are needed more and more each day, but also because the research is figuring out how to make this alternative energy source even more efficient and even more useful.

Krause, Alex. “Improving Wind Turbine Efficiency Through Whales-inspired Blade Design”. Harvey Mudd College. N.p., 2 March. 2009. Web. 3 April. 2014 <https://www.hmc.edu/biology/wp-content/uploads/sites/8/2013/12/krauserobinsonproposal-0.pdf>

This article describes a study done where multiple methods were used in order to monitor benthic habitats in the Boston Harbor and their reactions to reductions in waste water associated with the outfalls (pipelines or tunnels carrying treated waste water) of the mouth of the harbor and offshore. Between the years of 1992 to 2006 there was an indication that benthic habitats in the Boston Harbor shifted from an anaerobic state to an aerobic state, and these changes can be directly attributed to improvements in waste water treatment as well as the placement of the outfall pipelines. From 1992 to 2000, when the outfall pipelines were put in place, there was over a 90% reduction in the amount of organic material used in the waste water treatment process and there were also a reduction in the amount of nutrients used in the treatment process and this in turn led to decreases in primary production of benthic habitats. The most obvious change was the increase (1992) and then decline (2005) of Amphipod tube mats, which are organisms along the bottom of estuaries in the Northeastern U.S, in these benthic habitats. These tube mats change the sediment level in estuaries and determine the amount of larva that can live in the estuary.

The topic of this study was the health or abundance of benthic habitats in the Boston Harbor attributed to waste water treatment as well as waste water outfalls. The study asks the question: how do ecosystems of the Boston Harbor, specifically benthic habitats, respond to the relocation of outfalls and better waste water treatment? The type of data needed to answer this question is quantitative and aggregate, interval or ratio data. In order to collect this data there were surveys taken at various site locations with benthic habitats within the Boston Harbor. The data samples collected were then analyzed for patterns across the various stations and for sediment size, level, as well as depth.

This article was not written for the average person to understand it; many terms and keywords were not well defined. However there were a good number of graphs and tables to visually describe the findings from the study.

Diaz, R. J., Rhoads, D. C., Blake, J. A., Kropp, R. K., & Keay, K. E. (2008). Long-term Trends of Benthic Habitats Related to Reduction in Wastewater Discharge to Boston Harbor. Estuaries and Coasts, 31(6), 1184-1197. doi:http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/s12237-008-9094-z

In this research study the presence of the metal selenium was simulated in the North San Francisco Bay, which is the largest estuary on the Pacific coastline. Selenium is a metal commonly used in electronic and photocopier components but also in glass, rubber, textiles, medical therapeutic agents and petroleum. Some of the main sources of selenium in water is discharge from petroleum and metal refineries, from mines, as well as erosion of natural deposits. Possible health effects of long term use of drinking water contaminated with selenium are fingernail or hair loss and problems with blood circulation. This particular study considers point and non-point sources of selenium, transport and mixing of selenium, transformations between different types of selenium, the distribution of different types of dissolved and particulate selenium, and biological absorbance by phytoplankton, bivalves (mollusks), and then higher organisms within the food chain. The model used in the bay to simulate selenium concentrations also was able to represent salinity, suspended material and chlorophyll within different flow conditions, and compared to longer-term data, over a 15-year period. The study also looked at the relationship between the amount of selenium being put into the bay and variations in inflow, in-bay concentrations, as well as biological concentrations in order to manage the impacts on wildlife in the area.

The research topic is selenium’s concentrations in water and how that effects other aspects of the San Francisco Bay. The study asks the research question; how would the presence of the metal selenium, in different forms and concentrations, effect the wildlife food chains within the San Francisco Bay? The data type needed to answer this question would be aggregate interval or ratio data taken from water samples. Selenium was simulated into the water and then effects of the metal were analyzed through water samples as well as observation of phytoplankton and other forms of wildlife in the bay. Models were created to show what effect the metal had on the Bay.

This particular study was hard to understand, the article used a lot of big words that could not be universally comprehended. In addition, there was not enough background on the metal selenium and where it comes from.

Chen, L., Meseck, S. L., Roy, S. B., Grieb, T. M., & Baginska, B. (2012). Modeling fate, transport, and biological uptake of selenium in north san francisco bay. Estuaries and Coasts, 35(6), 1551-1570. doi:http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/s12237-012-9530-y

This study was a review of the collective distribution of a whole data set known as the Lead and Copper Rule (LCR) data set, which is used to assess the potential consequences from water treatment changes in the San Francisco Bay area’s water supply (SFWS). The data set shows water samples and tests run on these samples for pH, lead and copper as well as other various metals’ concentrations in the water. The data is from the year 2000 to the year 2006, and the study found that most of the pH levels were significantly and consistently higher in 2006 than in any year before and this was due to improved corrosion control treatment of metals in the water in 2005.

The topic for this study was water conditioning to control metals, lead, copper and corrosion release in the San Francisco area’s water supply. And the study asked the question; what consequences do water treatment changes have on the water supply of San Fran and in the concentrations of metals in that water supply?

The type of data collected for this research was aggregate interval or ratio data taken every year in the San Francisco Bay area’s water supply. These water samples taken were tested for pH levels and metals and then compared between the years 2000 to 2006. This research study was thorough and easy to comprehend without having a high level of knowledge on the subject.

Wilczak, A., Hokanson, D. R., Trussell, R. R., Boozarpour, M., & DeGraca, A. F. (2010). Water Conditioning for LCR Compliance and Control of Metals Release in San Francisco’s Water System. American Water Works Association.Journal, 102(3), 52-64,14.

http://0-search.proquest.com.books.redlands.edu/docview/221593633/abstract/9B5EF2D2485347C0PQ/2?accountid=14729

In the Massachusetts Bay, Cape Cod Bay as well as Boston Harbor there is a comprehensive, multidisciplinary water quality-monitoring program run by the Massachusetts Water Resources Authority (MWRA) that analyzed impacts on the environment from relocated secondary-treated effluent outfall. The study was conducted from 1992 through 2007 and collected about 16 years of data, specifically species level estimates of phytoplankton and zoo plankton abundance in the area. For reference, zoo plankton and phytoplankton are tiny animals that are found near the surface of aquatic ecosystems, they typically just drift along the water with the currents. Both of these populations of plankton are important to marine ecosystems because they usually form the base of the food chain or food webs. This collected data over time shows that the relocation of effluent from the Boston Harbor to the bays has decreased the number of nutrients and improved the overall water quality in the harbor. While this effluent was moved from the harbor to the bay there was an increase in dissolved inorganic nutrients near the bay outfall, but so far the study hasn’t shown this as a negative effect. Through the study of phytoplankton and zoo plankton, which found regional changes in the two species, it was also found that the Cape Cod Bay and the Massachusetts Bay are closely connected physically as well as ecologically to the Gulf of Maine. Effects of the relocation of effluent have not been observed in the phytoplankton or zoo plankton populations instead, changes in these populations are related to regional to hemispheric scales.

The research topic for this study was to address changes in the size of phytoplankton and zoo plankton, their production rates, the amount of nuisance or noxious species, as well as the species composition as reacting to the relocation of effluent. This would in turn determine not only the health of the marine ecosystem but also the water quality. The research question posed is; how will the relocation of effluent from the Boston Harbor to the Massachusetts Bay and the Cape Cod Bay effect the ecosystems in those bays through phytoplankton and zoo plankton as well as how will it affect their water quality? The type of data used in this research was survey and annual averages and therefore aggregate, interval or ratio data.

Each year was different but overall the monitoring program has sampled between 34 and 48 water quality stations dispersed throughout Boston Harbor, Massachusetts Bay, and Cape Cod Bay annually. The stations were selected strategically and were located along the expected direction of the effluent. Various scientific testing to test for the changes in the size of phytoplankton and zoo plankton, their production rates, the amount of nuisance or noxious species, as well as the species composition was used to analyze the data. Inorganic compounds and general differences in the ecosystems were also analyzed at each of the water monitoring stations.

This research was clear and easy to understand. There were many graphs within the article, which created another way to see the data and interpret the research’s findings. The research was also very proactive, which is good, instead of waiting to see what the effects of this new direction and movement of effluent would be after the fact, they were testing from the start to make sure there were no negative effects on the environment from the effluent.

Hunt, C. D., Borkman, D. G., Libby, P. S., Lacouture, R., Turner, J. T., & Mickelson, M. J.(2010). Phytoplankton patterns in massachusetts bay–1992-2007. Estuaries and Coasts, 33(2), 448 470. doi:http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/s12237-008-9125-9

http://0-search.proquest.com.books.redlands.edu/docview/2299991/abstract?accountid=14729

This article “Inter-dependencies of Urban Climate Change Impacts and Adaptation Strategies” discusses a study that analyzed the impacts of climate change and adaptation strategies for infrastructure in the urban city and area of Boston, Massachusetts. The study found that taking precautionary steps before the year 2050 would allow for less adaptation in the future as well as less impact costs in the future. The study emphasized the inter-dependencies of systems involving adaptation and the interrelations among infrastructure systems as well. In addition they stressed the need for the city to develop policies to deal with coming climate change and to easily adapt to these changes so as not to force implementations and new actions quickly. In addition the article discusses a project that was conducted from 1999 to 2004 called CLIMB. A multidisciplinary team conducted the research and included people from Universities in the Northeast and a Stakeholder Advisory Committee, which consisted of members from the government and infrastructure and planning experts. This project essentially looked at existing infrastructure and assessed climate change impacts on that infrastructure and what decision- and policy-makers needed to understand about the potential consequences of climate change. Some of the data and data analysis for this particular study came from the CLIMB project, which was very relevant to this study.

The research topic of this study is analyzing impacts of climate change and developing adaptation strategies for the Boston area while remembering the interconnection of various systems especially the existing infrastructure. This study asked the question; How will climate change potentially impact the existing infrastructure in the Boston, MA immediate area and what are some solutions to this problem? The type of data needed to answer this question is aggregate, interval or ratio data. Most of the data they used were simulations of what may happen in the future along with what preventative measures may be needed as well as scenario data. They mostly examined what may happen with rising temperatures.

The researchers divided the area into seven zones according to three guidelines; areas north of the city of Boston, which have different coastal properties and socioeconomic features, and highly urbanized areas are dealt with separately from suburbs and rapidly growing suburbs are distinguished from already highly developed and densely populated ones. They gathered different data from these different zones and they also took existing data on temperature and precipitation from the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change database.

This data was then run through a series of scenarios for climate change impacts compared to current impacts from climate. Each zone was also analyzed by energy use, sea level rise, river flooding, surface vehicle transportation, water supply, public health, water quality, tall buildings, and bridge scour. Effects from future climate change were assessed as well as impacts and three categories of impacts were produced; loss of service: for example, loss of lives due to heat stress, repair/replacement: potential costs for rebuilding infrastructure systems, adaptation: potential cost of correcting the infrastructure.

This research and article was very easy to understand and thorough. It’s also important research that should be done in all cities and communities in order to prepare for the future with potentially different climates.

Kirshen, P., Ruth, M., & Anderson, W. (2008). Interdependencies of Urban Climate Change Impacts and Adaptation Strategies: A Case Study of Metropolitan Boston USA. Climatic Change, 86(1-2), 105-122. doi:http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/s10584-007-9252-5

http://0search.proquest.com.books.redlands.edu/docview/198519060/abstract/683A01BD627048B8PQ/8?accountid=14729

This article is essentially describing a proposed water quality planning program and report to the state legislature for the area of the San Francisco Bay and the Sacramento-San Joaquin Delta. This area was developing rapidly and was affected strongly by planned as well as existing (at the time) water project developments along with agricultural drainage waters. A new program was put into place by the State of California, which was to be finished by 1969; this program’s plan was to control water pollution with basics such as a system for collection, reclamation, treatment and disposal of waste water as well as water discharges. At the time this project was enormous, one of the biggest ever undertaken and was uncommon in a number of aspects; area size, complex hydrological system, diversity of people benefiting from project, and its approaches. The general topic of this research is the San Francisco Bay and Sacramento-San Joaquin Delta water project to control water quality and control water pollution. There isn’t a specific research question because they article is looking at the proposed plan and report of the project but the general question is will the project be successful?

The study area for the project included the 12 counties surrounding San Francisco Bay and the Sacramento-San Joaquin Delta (about 130 miles). In order to gather data on this study area the project used computerized mathematical models in order to simulate the “hydrodynamic characteristics” of the water. These included the tidal hydrodynamic model, the dynamic water quality model, and the tidal dispersion model. These models also analyzed the data once they simulated the conditions.

Overall this article was very easy and clear to read. It wasn’t as much of a research article as a summary of what the project would hope to accomplish with water management. The article is also very old, from the 1960s, this means that the project could have failed or been successful already but the article doesn’t say, so more research would be required to see how the project turned out.

Walsh, Raymond. San Francisco Bay-Delta Water Quality Control Program. Journal (Water Pollution Control Federation). [Online] 1968, 40, 241-251. http://www.jstor.org/stable/25036012 (accessed Feb 13,2014).

The research topic for this study looked at concentrations of different types of mercury in streams after forest clear-cutting. And the researchers asked the question, what is the comparison between the concentration of Mercury in streams draining from young forests that are clear-cut and streams draining from old forests that are clear-cut?

This study measured concentrations of mercury (inorganic and methyl, chemically shown as Hg” and MeHg) from a stream that drained 0-4 year old clear-cuts of former Norway Spruce forest stands (trees) and then compared those measurements to concentrations in streams that drained over 70 year old Norwegian Spruce reference stands (trees). The study essentially found that concentrations of mercury (all kinds tested) were significantly higher in the 0-4 year clear-cuts compared to the older trees. They assumed that the mercury was mobilized from the soil to the stream as a consequence of clear-cutting and they calculated that about 1/6 of the higher mercury concentration in the 0-4 year clear-cuts could be attributed to enhanced mobilization from soil. They calculated that 5/6 of the concentration was due to a new kind of mercury (Hg”). Logging residue as well as soil organic matter contributed to an environment for electron donors for mercury-creating bacteria, which in turn became more common. Therefore this new kind of mercury became stimulated and created through this bacteria and clear cutting. The researchers found this information through survey, ratio data.

The researchers sampled all of the streams once within a two-week period in August 2007. They collected 150 mL of stream water in acid washed Teflon Nalgene bottles and transported by cooler. To determine the concentrations of the different types of Mercury they used isotope dilution analysis. Essentially the analysis consists of multiple chemical experiments and tests. The final test determined the total mercury concentration by cold vapor atomic fluorescence spectroscopy.

This research was very hard to understand, especially if little to nothing is known about chemistry. Many chemical terms and elements were used without a lot of explanation of what the authors were discussing making it difficult for the reader to completely appreciate the research study.

Skyllberg, Ulf; Bjorkman, Mattias Westin; Meili, Markus; Bjorn, Erik. Elevated Concentrations of Methyl Mercury in Streams after Forest Clear-Cut: A consequence of Mobilization from soil or New Methylation? Enviornmental Science & Technology. 2009, 43, 8535-8541.

In the article, “Effects of Centralized and Onsite Wastewater Treatment on the Occurrence of Traditional and Emerging Contaminants in Streams” by G.M. Ferrell and B.H. Grimes they discuss a study that took a survey of small streams, seven sites in total, in the Neuse River Basin in North Carolina to assess the effects of centralized and onsite wastewater treatment on the occurrence of selected traditional and emerging contaminants. Also included in the survey was undeveloped site to assess effects of residential land use activities on stream quality. Overall they found that concentrations were higher, of nutrients and ions, in the residential site. In these areas there was little difference between the types of wastewater treatment. Although they stated that two sites showed effects of wastewater, one was from an area near a suspected sewage line leak with centralized wastewater treatment, and the second one used onsite wastewater treatment. In these two particular sites organic wastewater compounds were more common than the other sites.

This study’s research topic was essentially the effects of emerging contaminants (versus traditional contaminants) from centralized or onsite wastewater treatment systems on streams and they asked the question; what are the effects of centralized and onsite wastewater treatment on the occurrence of selected traditional and emerging contaminants in small streams in the upper Neuse River basin, North Carolina?

The type of data they used was aggregate, interval data. They collected water samples at seven different sites and then processed them and shipped them to various laboratories across the country to analyze the data. The samples were collected in accordance with the guidelines of the U.S. Geological Survey and were collected between December 2004 and June 2005. The labs tested each sample for traditional contamination such as, nutrients and pathogens, as well as emerging contaminants like pharmaceuticals and personal care products. Each sample was ranked by its collection period and then tested by ranked values.

This research did a good job making sure there was a valid sample and also the article reported the data that got messed up or wasn’t as accurate. It also provided some reasoning for the data results they came up with. In the conclusion they stated that more data would be needed in order to receive a complete and accurate idea of wastewater contamination in streams. They also provided a link to the actual data collected if the reader wanted to see the data themselves. Graphs and tables were also provided within the article to better show how the data was analyzed.

Ferrell G.M.; Grimes B.H. Effects of Centralized and Onsite Wastewater Treatment on the Occurrence of Traditional and Emerging Contaminants in Streams. Journal of Environmental Health. 2014, 76, 18-28.