Greg H

Journal Exercise 2

Raymond Klaassen and Mikael Hake of Lund University performed a study of mortality in migrant birds.  It was published in the Journal of Animal Ecology in 2014 vol 83 pages 176-184 and titled “When and where does mortality occur in migratory birds? Direct evidence from long-term satellite tracking of raptors”.  Their study spanned over sixteen years of data collection.  To gather their data they affixed satellite transmitters; or banded 69 adult raptors, and found that mortality rate was six times greater during migration.  Most of these moralities were linked to particularly rigorous legs of their journey,  including the crossing of the Sahara desert in the Spring.   To determine the cause of the transmission loss several criteria were used, probable transmission failure, confirmed transmission failure, probable death, and confirmed death.  Using simple statistical analysis they calculated the survival rates by month as well as for breeding season, autumn migration, winter and spring migrations. The article does good work at showing its results in many different forms, including multiple types of charts and graphs, and even includes a map displaying the geographic distribution of the deaths.  While the study seems to point out an obvious conclusion of increased mortality during migration periods, it also sheds light on the  complexities of the death and migration of diurnal raptors. Their study found that the spring migration seemed to have a particularly strong effect on the annual survival rate of many of the diurnal raptors. This article was of particular interest to me because these researchers found a topic which many researchers simply glossed over, concluding that death was greatest during migration periods, but they delved into it and found interesting results.

http://0onlinelibrary.wiley.com.books.redlands.edu/doi/10.1111/1365-2656.12135/pdf

In the journal article “Fostering ‘Connectedness to Nature’ through U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service Education and Outreach Programming: A Qualitative Evaluation” by Stefan Theimer and Julie Ernst, the relationship between youth and outdoor education is examined. In this study, a comparison is made between students from three separate USFWS environmental education programs. The research questions examined were “Do the participants perceive that their program is influencing their connectedness to nature?” and “If so, what aspect of the program do they associate with influencing their connectedness to nature?”  In this study, “connection to nature” was defined as evidence of ‘emotional connection or affinity to the natural world’.

The first program (named “Program 1”) is a club consisting of 5^th grade students from the pacific region which meets every two weeks. The program focuses on activities such as biology, fishing, knot-tying, teambuilding and orienteering. The only outdoor activity in Program 1 is orienteering.

“Program 2” is an alternative high school program in the pacific region, made of high school students who struggle to succeed in a normal school setting. The school takes place on a fish hatchery complex, with hatchery staff mentoring the students through many relevant lessons and activities. The students receive both outdoor and indoor instruction from teachers, and have frequent access to natural areas around the facility.

“Program 3” is a field-based middle school program, located on a USFWS waterfowl production area. Certain classes of 4^th and 5^th grade students spend half of their school days at the site. The program lends students a hands-on learning experience, including duck banding, water sampling, long-distance expedition excursions, free-writing regarding their environmental studies, various outdoor pursuits, and repeated quiet observation activities.

Researches collected data by having volunteer participants participate in focus group interviews. Questions asked were focused around 9 different themes regarding nature: comfort, emotion, exploration, knowledge, observation, stewardship, wildlife curiosity, wildlife sensitivity and wildlife sharing. Results suggested that students from Program 3 scored significantly higher in each category.

This research could show a simple indication for the future of outdoor and environmental education: When teaching natural systems, outdoor exposure and hands-on learning is essential to forming a connection with nature.

Who researched:

J. A. Estes, M. T. Tinker, T. M. Williams, D. F. Doak

Where researched:

Western Alaska

When researched:

Received for publication May 27, 1998

Accepted for publication July 20, 1998

Research methods used:

-population surveys at Adak Island in the central Aleutian archipelago

-population surveys at Little Kiska

-population surveys at Amchitka

-population surveys at the Kagalaska Islands

-Aerial surveys of the Aleutian archipelago conducted by the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service in 1965 and 1992

-Studies of radio-tagged sea otters at Amchitka Island from 1992 to 1994

-Studies of radio-tagged sea otters at Adak Island from 1995 to 1996

-Contrasting otter population and trends in Adak Island with population and trends in Clam Lagoon

-Compared actual number of observed orca attacks on sea otters with expected number of witnessed attacks (based on estimations of how many orca attacks must drive the sea otter population decline rates)

-Kelp forests were surveyed at 28 randomly selected sites at Adak Island in 1987 and compared to surveys done in 1997

What they found:

Due to the maritime fur trade of the late 1800s to early 1900s, the sea otter (Enhydra Lutris) population was in great decline. Almost extinct, the North Pacific felt the need to act and created the International Fur Seal Treaty in 1911 in hopes of re-growing the sea otter population. By the 1970s, the sea otter population had somewhat bounced back, particularly in the North Pacific. However, in the late 1980s marine biologists once again noticed a decline in the population in Western Alaska. Through eyewitness reports, studies of radio-tagged sea otters, sea otter population surveys and random kelp forest surveys, scientists noticed a decline of about 25% of the sea otter population in Western Alaska from 1987 to 1997. This decline in population was evidenced by the decline of kelp forests and a sharp increase in sea urchin biomass in this region. This drastic decline in a sea otter population can be explained by three phenomena: redistribution, increased mortality or reduced fertility. Studies of radio-tagged sea otters showed that fertility rates were similar to those of stable populations and the sea otters of Western Alaska had not redistributed. Therefore, the sea otters must have been declining due to an increased mortality rate.

This increased mortality rate is most likely due to killer whale (Orcinus Orca) predation. This is evidenced by 10 eyewitness reports of killer whales attacking sea otters, which had never been observed before 1991. Weighing in the number of eyewitness reports, the chances of witnessing this phenomenon and the number of days this scientific team spent observing sea otters; J. A. Estes, M. T. Tinker, T. M. Williams, and D. F. Doak concluded that the sharp decline of the sea otter population in Western Alaska was most likely due to killer whale predation.

What this means/Why it’s important:

Killer Whales had never been known to hunt sea otters before the 1990s. However, outsourcing to a new prey is not an unexpected act.  Due to drastic overfishing in the North Pacific, pinniped populations have declined forcing killer whales to find new food sources. Knowing the intelligence levels of these marine mammals, it is not surprising that they would know to turn to a new, abundant food source readily available to them. However, what is surprising, and important, about this research is how a species from one ecosystem can have such a large effect on a completely separate ecosystem. Killer whales (from the oceanic ecosystem) are completely changing the coastal ecosystem of Western Alaska by killing off the keystone species (sea otters). This decline in sea otters is causing kelp forests to disappear and sea urchins to become the most abundant species. This shift from a three-trophic-level system to a four-trophic-level system has completely shifted the dynamic of the coastal ecosystem and shows just how big an influence a top predator can have on an entire food chain.

In addition to the findings of the research, we can learn from the research itself. These findings could not have been uncovered if it weren’t for the steady, slow process of a 10 year study, showing the need for large-scale approaches in some research (particularly ecological research).

The article on “Carry-over effects from breeding modulate the annual cycle of a long distance migrant: An experimental demonstration” by Paulo Catry and his fellow researchers covers a facet of the life history of the Cory Shearwater.  It was published in the journal Ecology Vol. 94, No. 6, pp. 1230-1235. The facet of the migratory bird’s life history that the researchers examined is the effect of a failed breeding season upon the migratory birds, specifically their behavior, survival, and their subsequent geographic distribution. Paulo and his A team gathered data on this by removing the fledgling chick from the nest and banding the birds, thus synthesizing an unsuccessful breeding season in 2009. The A team then proceeded to band several pairs of successful adult shearwaters in 2009 to function as a control.  In
2010 the A team allowed the manipulated nesting pairs from 2009 to breed successfully to root out any unsavory concerns. The A team than simply placed the data upon a map, each bird supplying one data point, except the birds which were manipulated, which served as two in their successful and unsuccessful years. The A team toiled day in and day out to discover the hidden changes in behavior and geographic distribution between the successful and unsuccessful breeders. Well it didn’t take much toiling the data spoke for itself and a surprising 4/7 of the breeders which were unsuccessful chose to stay in the Canary channel rather than to proceed with the rest of the flock further south to the wintering grounds compared to the successful pairs of which 0/14 chose to stay.  The ever hopeful Cory’s Shearwaters that were manipulated/unsuccessful in their breeding season spent their time pampering themselves, molting early, and making sure they were in prime mating condition for the next breeding season in which they will surely excel. But perhaps the biggest finding of all was the fact that these unsuccessful pairs arrived to breeding grounds earlier than did the successful pairs, or their successful selves in the latter year. This is a great boon to their chances of passing on their genetics since many times a good territory is a source of great competition.

Deyashish Shriyastaya. Drip irrigation scheduling, growth and yield of sweet orange. Environment and Ecology, 24(4), 714-719.

Drip irrigation is a method that can save water by controlling the rate water drips to the roots of plants.  The drip irrigation design utilizes many different spouts redirecting water to different plants.  Each water spout’s drip schedule and rate of drip can be varied.

While providing the ability to micro-manage water-use, drip irrigation also conserves water by reducing the rate of water-use.  Sprinklers cover a surface area and have to use excess water to provide minimum nutrients to plants.  Drip irrigation delivers water directly to the root of individual plants, and does not cover a large surface of un-used farm land.

Drip irrigation’s capabilities have proven to be promising and is an upcoming method in orange farming.  During an experiment, orange trees were compared when using different schedules and rates or irrigation.  This experiment was to analyze the different growths of the trees and the different outcomes of fruit-growth.

The research question asks, what is the most efficient method of using drip irrigation for orange-farming?  The data compared was both qualitative and quantitative.  When comparing fruit quality, it was preference and qualitative data.  When comparing the growth of the trees, the data was measurable and quantitative. The data gathering method includes interview for qualitative data, and observe measurement records for quantitative data.   The data is then analyzed by comparison amongst tables.

This research is interesting, because it shows us how we can be more efficient with our water when crop-growing.  Not only does drip allow us to conserve water, but to control the way we use it.  By allowing us to control the rate and schedule of our irrigation, we can control the rate our plant and fruit grow.  Drip irrigation provides many new abilities to irrigation, and can be utilized by the University of Redlands.

An article published in Annual Review of Plant Physiology and Plant Molecular Biology, 48, 609–639, titled “More efficient plants: a consequence of rising atmospheric CO2?” attempts to answer that question by using various data gathered from previous studies. Conducted by Drake B.G., Gonzàlez-Meler M.A., and Long S.P., the research aims to analyze the collected data with conclusions made from other literature to give explanation to the questions: Why does the rise of CO2 level increase resource-use efficiency for plants and what are the implications of this increased efficiency?

The effects of atmospheric carbon dioxide (Ca) on plants gives knowledge to what is expected in the future if the trend of rising CO2 continues. The article concludes that rising Ca, in general, causes plants to use resources more efficiently. Increase in photosynthesis, light-use efficiency, water use efficiency, and nutrient-use efficiency were all present in an environment of elevated Ca. It also reduces transpiration and stomatal conductance. There more efficient plants as a consequence of elevated atmospheric CO2, in terms of higher carbon assimilation per unit of water lost, per unit nitrogen content, and per unit absorb light.

The type of data the was obtained to answer the questions was physiological traits. The research surveyed studies as a means to collect physiological traits of plants exposed to elevated Ca and with those that were not exposed to elevated Ca. With the collected data, species with its given environment were able to be compared with each other to draw physiological differences.

The research approached “efficiency” of plants in many angles and provided meaningful information. Efficiency was evaluated in terms of water, nutrient, and light. Limitation of the study were discussed which gave a more thorough insight. An example of this is the research’s response to situation where there was a lack of response to elevated Ca. and that it states that is was unclear whether it was caused by specific genes of the plants or because of the effects of high humidity on the stomata. The research presented unanswered questions and that some statements lacked evidence conclude. Suggestions to future studies to answer these questions would have been a good addition to the paper. Overall, however, the research was executed very well. The analysis of multiple studies and the reasoning of the use of data give very substantial information to the effects of Ca on plants.

In the article, “Effects of Centralized and Onsite Wastewater Treatment on the Occurrence of Traditional and Emerging Contaminants in Streams” by G.M. Ferrell and B.H. Grimes they discuss a study that took a survey of small streams, seven sites in total, in the Neuse River Basin in North Carolina to assess the effects of centralized and onsite wastewater treatment on the occurrence of selected traditional and emerging contaminants. Also included in the survey was undeveloped site to assess effects of residential land use activities on stream quality. Overall they found that concentrations were higher, of nutrients and ions, in the residential site. In these areas there was little difference between the types of wastewater treatment. Although they stated that two sites showed effects of wastewater, one was from an area near a suspected sewage line leak with centralized wastewater treatment, and the second one used onsite wastewater treatment. In these two particular sites organic wastewater compounds were more common than the other sites.

This study’s research topic was essentially the effects of emerging contaminants (versus traditional contaminants) from centralized or onsite wastewater treatment systems on streams and they asked the question; what are the effects of centralized and onsite wastewater treatment on the occurrence of selected traditional and emerging contaminants in small streams in the upper Neuse River basin, North Carolina?

The type of data they used was aggregate, interval data. They collected water samples at seven different sites and then processed them and shipped them to various laboratories across the country to analyze the data. The samples were collected in accordance with the guidelines of the U.S. Geological Survey and were collected between December 2004 and June 2005. The labs tested each sample for traditional contamination such as, nutrients and pathogens, as well as emerging contaminants like pharmaceuticals and personal care products. Each sample was ranked by its collection period and then tested by ranked values.

This research did a good job making sure there was a valid sample and also the article reported the data that got messed up or wasn’t as accurate. It also provided some reasoning for the data results they came up with. In the conclusion they stated that more data would be needed in order to receive a complete and accurate idea of wastewater contamination in streams. They also provided a link to the actual data collected if the reader wanted to see the data themselves. Graphs and tables were also provided within the article to better show how the data was analyzed.

Ferrell G.M.; Grimes B.H. Effects of Centralized and Onsite Wastewater Treatment on the Occurrence of Traditional and Emerging Contaminants in Streams. Journal of Environmental Health. 2014, 76, 18-28.

Kao, Grace, and Marta Tienda. “Optimism and Achievement: The Educational Performance of Immigrant Youth .” Social Science Quarterly. no. 1 (1995). http://0-web.a.ebscohost.com.books.redlands.edu/ehost/pdfviewer/pdfviewer?sid=47797f1f-2597-4932-8916-fe5aa80aeeeb@sessionmgr4005&vid=1&hid=4204 (accessed February 1, 2014).

This article can also be found in the Armacost Library.

“Optimism and Achievement: The Educational Performance of Immigrant Youth” by Grace Kao and Marta Tienda looks at whether assimilation benefits immigrant students. It looks at “the relative merits of three hypotheses regarding generational status and scholastic performance: (1) straight-line assimilation; (2) accommodation without assimilation; (3) immigrant optimism,” as explained in the abstract. The article first looks at hypotheses one and two by comparing data on educational achievements and moves to compare these findings further with data on parental attitudes and behaviors. The topic of this article is the educational performance of immigrant youth and poses the question: does assimilation benefit the educational achievement of immigrant youth?

This question can be answered with a few different types of data. Educational achievement should most-likely be measured with quantitative data such as test scores, grades, or graduation rates. In this case, the study uses test scores, grades, and college aspirations of eighth graders. In this study, the authors used The National Educational Longitudinal Study of 1988, a national survey with a two-stage  probability sampling design, providing a nationally representative sample of 24,599 students from 1,052 randomly selected schools. The authors looked at a statistical profile of students. For grades, they simply compared the grades of students with first generation, second generation, and third generation immigrant status and native-born status. In addition, they performed a regression analysis on middle-school grades, eighth grade math and reading test scores, and aspirations to graduate from college. To analyze parental attitudes and behaviors, they performed a statistical analysis on family rules and communication among first generation immigrant parents, second generation immigrant parents, and native generation parents and looked at the relationship between these data and educational achievement.

This research was very thorough and provided statistical analysis which provided results that were easy to organize and present in their write-up. Although some members of the general public may struggle to interpret statistical analyses, they don’t need to be able to do so to understand the findings because the authors explain the results with great detail. The research was ethical, informative, and designed to be unbiased. The only difficulty I had was an unclear definition of “college aspirations.” I’m assuming the data on college aspirations were collected in a way that made them quantifiable because a statistical analysis was performed on the data, however it is not clear what they mean in the results by “higher college aspirations” among certain groups.

Interestingly, other variables appeared to have an impact on the results: race and ethnic background. The authors did take the time to address these variables in their results. This research wielded favorable results for accommodation without assimilation and immigrant optimism and did not favor straight-line assimilation. It is interesting to see two out of three of their hypotheses were favored by the data and one was not because we often think of hypotheses of mutually exclusive. The two different types of data were helpful in strengthening the results of the study, and looking at the relationship between the two offered a detailed analysis.

Therapeutic Community in a California Prison:

Treatment Outcome after 5 years 

Zhang, Sheldon X., Robert E. L. Roberts, and Kathryn E. McCollister. 2011. “Therapeutic       Community in California Prison: Treatment Outcome after 5 years.”

Crime and Delinquency 57(1): 82-101.

The article above discusses the research topic, “Outcomes of Therapeutic Community treatment participants in the California Prison system”. This article covers research that was conducted while studying a group of inmates who participated in a prison-based therapeutic community in a California state prison, with a comparison group of similar offenders. The article goes about answering the question, “Do therapeutic communities help participants lower return-to-prison patterns, if not, what are the new arrests and types of offenses?” The research took place during the enrollment in the therapeutic community (TC), as well as 5 years after their initial prison release.  The study followed the inmates for 5 years after their initial release in order to record return-to-prison patterns and new-arrests and types of offenses. The type of data that will answer the basic research question are reports of acts, behavior and events, economic data, and self identification.

Therapeutic communities are beginning to become increasingly popular options among correctional facilities with drug-involved offenders. Therapeutic communities are typically drug-free residential settings that rely heavily on peer influence and group processes to promote abstinence and pro-social behavior. Research findings on therapeutic communities in prison have been mostly positive. Inmates who completed the TC treatment and entered into aftercare showed the most positive outcomes at 12 and 24-month intervals.

After treatment, TC participants were offered one of three treatments in aftercare: residential, sober living with mandatory drug-free outpatient services, and drug-free outpatient services. Many studies have found that the highest rates of successful outcomes accrued to those who completed post release aftercare programs. Because most aftercare programs are voluntary, it appears that inmates’ innate motivational factors play an important role in post release treatment participation and successful reintegration into the community.

The rate of return-to-prison among participants was examined in two follow-up periods: the first year following release from prison and the period between the inmate’s release and the end of data collection, averaging just less than 5 years and 4 months. The research was conducted by the following:

1. In-depth interview – yielding data on each participants demographic background, educational and employment histories, criminal and substance abuse histories, psychological functioning, relationships with family and friends, health status, and health service utilization.

2. Detached observation and participant observation – 4 additional years post in-depth interviews.

3. Public records – arrest records maintained by the California Department of Justice and the prison inmate data maintained by the California Department of Corrections and Rehabilitation. Used to determine whether or not participants were reincarcerated, and if so, under what circumstances and offenses.

With the data analysis conducted by the following:

1. Interview data is used to separate the inmates into the control group and the experimental group. The information is to place similar individuals in both of the groups.

2. Bivariate associations (correlations) – to determine whether or not TC communities help participant’s lower return-to-prison rates.

3. Frequency counts (numbers and percentages) – to determine what percentage of TC participants and comparison participants were reincarcerated and if so, for how long.

More than half of ALL study participants were returned to prison within 12 months of release. Treatment participants who received aftercare upon release were roughly 10% less likely to be incarcerated during the first year. More than 72% of both groups were reincarcerated at least once by the end of the 5-year observation period. As a group, the TC participants and the comparison participants had almost identical reincarceration rates.

Over both follow-up periods, TC participants who received aftercare were rearrested at a rate lower than that of those who did not. None of the observed difference in either observation period reached any statistical significance.