This article describes a study done where multiple methods were used in order to monitor benthic habitats in the Boston Harbor and their reactions to reductions in waste water associated with the outfalls (pipelines or tunnels carrying treated waste water) of the mouth of the harbor and offshore. Between the years of 1992 to 2006 there was an indication that benthic habitats in the Boston Harbor shifted from an anaerobic state to an aerobic state, and these changes can be directly attributed to improvements in waste water treatment as well as the placement of the outfall pipelines. From 1992 to 2000, when the outfall pipelines were put in place, there was over a 90% reduction in the amount of organic material used in the waste water treatment process and there were also a reduction in the amount of nutrients used in the treatment process and this in turn led to decreases in primary production of benthic habitats. The most obvious change was the increase (1992) and then decline (2005) of Amphipod tube mats, which are organisms along the bottom of estuaries in the Northeastern U.S, in these benthic habitats. These tube mats change the sediment level in estuaries and determine the amount of larva that can live in the estuary.

The topic of this study was the health or abundance of benthic habitats in the Boston Harbor attributed to waste water treatment as well as waste water outfalls. The study asks the question: how do ecosystems of the Boston Harbor, specifically benthic habitats, respond to the relocation of outfalls and better waste water treatment? The type of data needed to answer this question is quantitative and aggregate, interval or ratio data. In order to collect this data there were surveys taken at various site locations with benthic habitats within the Boston Harbor. The data samples collected were then analyzed for patterns across the various stations and for sediment size, level, as well as depth.

This article was not written for the average person to understand it; many terms and keywords were not well defined. However there were a good number of graphs and tables to visually describe the findings from the study.

Diaz, R. J., Rhoads, D. C., Blake, J. A., Kropp, R. K., & Keay, K. E. (2008). Long-term Trends of Benthic Habitats Related to Reduction in Wastewater Discharge to Boston Harbor. Estuaries and Coasts, 31(6), 1184-1197. doi:http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/s12237-008-9094-z

Who Researched:
Nathalie T. Burkert, Joanna Muckenhuber, Franziska Grobschadl, Eva Rasky, Wolfgang Freidl
Where Researched:
Austria
When Researched:
Research took place March 2006 through February 2007
Published February 07, 2014
Research Methods Used:
Cross-sectional study:
–First Step–the sample was taken from the Austrian Health Interview Survey, which interviewed 15,474 individual across Austria. The interviewees were asked about their day-to-day diets and placed into four categories:
Vegetarian diet, carnivorous diet rich in fruits and vegetables, carnivorous diet less rich in meat, carnivorous diet rich in meat.
–Second Step–all vegetarians were categorized by their sex, age (within 5 year spans), and socioeconomic status. A vegetarian falling into a certain demographic (ex: male, 20-25 years old, low socioeconomic status) was then paired with someone falling into the same demographic from the carnivorous diet rich in fruits and vegetables category, the carnivorous diet less rich in meat category, and the carnivorous diet rich in meat category. Therefore, there were 330 subjects selected from each dietary habit category.
–Third Step–face to face interviews were conducted to find out each subject’s socio-demographic characteristics, health-related behavior, diseases, medical treatments and psychological aspects.
–Fourth Step–the researchers compared individuals from each dietary habit category: one’s body mass index, one’s physical exercise habits, one’s smoking behavior and one’s typical alcohol consumption.
–Fifth Step–the researchers compared individuals’ overall health from each dietary habit category: self-reported health, levels of impairment from disorders, chronic diseases (if present), allergies (if present), cancer (if present), mental health ailments (if present) and urinary incontinence (if present).
What Was Found:
–BMI: vegetarians have the lowest mean BMI, followed by subjects eating a carnivorous diet less rich in meat, followed by subjects eating a carnivorous diet rich in fruits and vegetables, followed by subjects eating a carnivorous diet rich in meat.
–Physical exercise habits: no significant difference between dietary habit categories was found.
Smoking behavior: the number of cigarettes smoked per day did not differ between the various dietary habit groups
–Alcohol consumption: Subjects eating a vegetarian diet/a carnivorous diet rich in fruits and vegetables consume significantly less alcohol than those subjects eating a carnivorous diet less rich in meat/a carnivorous diet rich in meat.
–Vegetarians overall: self-report poorer health, higher levels of impairment from disorders, more chronic diseases than those eating a carnivorous diet less rich in meat, more suffer from allergies, more suffer from cancer, more suffer from mental health ailments, consult doctors more often than those eating a carnivorous diet less rich in meat, vaccinated less often, and make use of preventive check-ups less frequently.
–Carnivorous diet rich in meat overall: more urinary incontinence
What This Means:
When comparing vegetarians to the other dietary habit categories, vegetarians have an overall lower quality of “physical health”, “environment”, and “social relationships”. This study has revealed that vegetarians report poorer health, follow medical treatment more frequently, have worse preventive health care practices and have a “lower” quality of life. The subjects in this study that follow a vegetarian diet have a significantly higher cancer incidence, suffer more often from anxiety disorders and/or depression, and require more medical treatment. Of course, like any study, these results do not necessarily show causation or imply that every vegetarian will have a lower quality of physical health, environment and social relationships.

Molnar, J., Gamboa, R. Revenga, C, and Spalding, M.D. 2008 Assessing the global threat of invasive species to marine biodiversity. Frontiers in Ecology and the Environment, Vol 6, No. 9. pp. 485- 492.

It is widely accepted that invasive species are threatening to marine and terrestrial ecosystems and biodiversity. The impacts of these species have not been quantitatively assessed on a global level. In this report, over 350 databases and other sources are used to synthesize information on 329 marine invasive species. This included distribution, impacts on biodiversity, and introduction pathways. International shipping as well as aquaculture are two of the major ways that invasive species are introduced into an ecosystem.

The topic of this study is marine invasive species worldwide. There are multiple research questions being asked. One of them is, how do we quantify geographic distribution and pathways of invasive species? What are the invasive species by ecoregion and how threatening are they to the region?

An ecoregion is an area of relatively homogeneous species composition, quite clearly distinct from adjacent systems. They used this unit of analysis because it is global in scale and useful for ecological guides.  The database development was done by collecting data from a variety of sources and compiling the information into a geographically referenced database. Detailed information was collected about the threats that each invasive species posed on the biodiversity using a scoring system. Each invasive species was assigned a score from the following categories: ecological impact, geographic extent, invasive potential, and management difficulty. This score was assigned globally for each species. The pathway analysis is based off of the US National Invasive Species Council’s Pathways Team. It allows documentation of all known and likely pathways for each species in the database. The creation of the database was by using expert knowledge and published works. From there the analysis was done through the database and many different statistical tests were able to be run and averages analyzed.

The database includes 329 marine invasive species in 194 ecoregions. The data shows high levels of invasion in Northern California in San Francisco (n= 85 species, 66% which are harmful). The most common pathway is shipping and transfer through ballast water. Using data collected in this assessment, global patterns can be identified in hopes to conserve and create policy effort to decrease the number of invasive species through out the world. It was found that there is under reporting of both microorganisms and low impact invasive species on the global scale.

Faircloth, Susan C., and John W. Tippeconnic III. The Civil Rights Project and The Pennsylvania State University Center for the Study of Leadership in American Indian Education, “The Dropout /Graduation Crisis Among American Indian and Alaska Native Students: Failure to Respond Places the Future of Native Peoples at Risk.” Last modified January 2010. Accessed March 23, 2014. http://files.eric.ed.gov/fulltext/ED511323.pdf.

Native students have the highest dropout rate in the United States. It is not a new phenomenon, but one that still persists. Although the majority of Native students (about 92%) attend public schools, the rest (about 8%) attend schools operated by the Bureau of Indian Education (BIE). BIE schools have been cited as having facilities in need of improvement. Additionally, native students who attend BIE schools tend to have poorer educational outcomes than those who attend public schools. This article looks at the graduation gap between native students and students of other races. The research topic of this article is the graduation rate crisis among American Indian and Alaska Native students. The research question is: In the 12 U.S. states with the largest native populations included in this study, what are the graduation gaps between native students and non native students.

The data type needed to answer this question is graduation rates of native and non native students in the 12 U.S. states with the largest native populations. These rates are broken down further by race and gender. For each state and category, a graduation gap between native and non native students is calculated. The authors retrieved their data from the National Center for Education Statistics’ (NCES) Common Core of Data (CCD). The figures used were calculated using the Cumulative Promotion Index (CPI). There are multiple techniques for calculating graduation rates, but CPI is favored by many who consider it the most accurate. The authors also looked at what percentage of the population is native in order to show how important this crisis is. The authors calculated graduation gaps between native and non native students in order to look for patterns in the data.

This research was very specific, which allowed it to give readers a detailed account of one phenomenon. At the beginning of the article, the authors discussed the limitation of the study, something I found very useful. Towards the end of the study, the authors discuss why this issue must be addressed, and they back their arguments up with data. Overall, I found this research very thorough and, in addition, useful to anyone who may be in the position to address this issue.

This study was done by Doug Knapp and Elizabeth Barrie and was published in the Journal of Science Education and Technology in 2001. This article focuses on two important takeaways of environmental education: awareness of environmental issues and knowledge of natural processes.
The article opens with literature including a 1994 report that over 20 million students visit science education centers each year, and that the number of these facilities has doubled since 1978. It then continues on to say that there is extensive research done to show that many are positively impacted by field trip experiences in their youth- drawn to either furthering their scientific education or having a more positive environmental attitude.
Researchers set forth to ask the question of what exactly made the difference for participants in environmental field expeditions. Specifically, they focused on the effect that two different field trips had on the environmental views of students. A diverse group of 500 urban fourth, fifth and sixth grade students were taken to a science center in Indiana in 1997 and 1998- one in the fall and one in the spring.
The students were taught lessons, as well as asked to hike around a lake while paying attention to various environmental factors of the ecosystem. One group was specifically issue-oriented and the other was ecology-oriented. They were then given a series of 15 multiple-choice questions to test their behavior intent, knowledge and attitude both before and after the field excursions. Data was then analyzed using ANOVA. The data analysis concluded that there was a significant increase in knowledge as a result of the field trips, however there was no significant difference between the ecology-based and the issue-based trips.
What does this conclude for the field of environmental education? Simply put, it does not seem to matter what students learn about environmental education, as long as they are outside and actively engaged.

Understanding happiness has always been a tricky concept, as examined in the article Subjective well-being: The science of happiness and a proposal for a national index, conducted by Diener, E. Published in American Psychologist, this research proposed the question: What does previous research show about the concept of happiness and how can the calculation of happiness for a national index be improved?

The data that used to answer this question are findings of previous research regarding happiness. The data was derived from public/private records. Diener analyzed various way in which subjective well-being (SWB) has being defined and measured. By constructive evaluation of previous research and by finding patterns, Diener was able to come up with conclusions. This research proposed a methodological refinement to the national index of subjective well-being. Subjective well-being was defined in the article as “people’s cognitive and affective evaluations of their lives.”

The article concludes that there has been great strides in the knowledge of SWB in the past years and many hold substance to SWB. The knowledge of SWB is, however, still very limited in the psychology community and that a stronger scientific foundation is necessary for providing unambiguous recommendation to improving happiness, whether it be societies or individuals. Being that this article was cited more than 1,000 times gives an initial response that it is substantial. Upon reading the article, Diener provided many respectable claims backed up with an abundance of supporting evidence. Additionally, the use of data that was contrary to claims gave the article more credibility in its propositions.

Is Happiness Relative? An intriguing title to the research by Ruut Veenhoven, published in Social Indicators Research 24, 1-34. In this article Veenhoven, the researcher, explores life-satisfaction and how it is influenced by the circumstances of others. As stated in the title, the research asks and answers the question: is happiness relative?

The data that was used to answer this question were reports of behavior obtained from previously conducted research. Those data were derived from surveys. The method of data analysis used in this study was correlation. Happiness and other factors that may contribute to it were analyzed to see if there were relationships between them to determine if the theory is correct.

The researcher addresses the theory that happiness is relative. The theory, summed up, states that how one’s satisfaction of life results from comparison, standards for the comparison change, and that they are arbitrarily constructed. Veenhoven tested for correlation between the data for happiness (obtained from other research) and variables such as wealth and income. For further analysis, he also evaluated happiness of other countries and evaluated as such. The results of the research was the theory is true but limited in its truthfulness. “Standards of comparison do not fully adjust to circumstances,” was explained in the article. Contrary to previous belief, most people report having a happy life as opposed to neutral. Most importantly, happiness being relative does not hold up in the state of hunger, danger, and isolation, regardless if other people are in worse positions.

For my evaluation of this research, I did not expect much from an outdated research. However, I still found it insightful. I am curious to what modern studies of happiness being relative provides. The approach of the research was well done; many concepts were addressed and evidence, as well as counter evidence, was constructively evaluated.

GREEN REMODELING Make Your Home More Energy-Efficient

Phelps, Megan E. Mother Earth News 258 (Jun/Jul 2013): 60-64.

The article above focuses on retro-fitting homes for cheaper energy bills and more beautiful living spaces.

Five energy experts break down remodeling options to turn your current home into the house of your dreams, with some smart green options. Many green remodeling projects can be done on a tight budget – you just have to start thinking through the possibilities.

Almost all the experts suggested the same starting point: get a through home energy rating. This will help illuminate what’s possible for your home and help you set priorities. This rating is rarely more than $500 and gives you measured data on what’s going to make the most difference in your home in terms of energy repair.

It is important to clearing define your priorities. Are you trying to lower your energy bill? Are you trying to gain more space? Are you looking for new flooring or walls?

One thing people don’t understand well is the concept of a holistic approach. A house is an connected system – by looking at the house as a complete system, you can greatly increase energy efficiency.

When doing a retrofit, the major tasks are usually air sealing, adding insulation and upgrading the heating and cooling system. Air sealing is especially affordable – a homeowner can do that with some caulking and weather-stripping for about $100. Another good solution is adding insulation in the attic. Ventilation is also a key part, as moisture can get trapped in walls and accumulate and create a lot of damage.

Don’t rush to replace windows! Prioritize window renovations; sealing up existing windows is often a better option than installing new ones. Plus, new windows tend to be less durable. If you really want to install new windows, place them on the South side of the home to gain valuable heat in the winter.

Heating and cooling a home can be very expensive. One way to help heat and cool your home is by incorporating passive solar design principles. Natural ventilation is one of these principles, suggesting the careful placement of windows and skylights. Skylights are a terrific option because they are located at a high point in the room, which allows warm air to rise out while drawing in cooler outdoor air through an open window.

Green remodeling doesn’t have to be too expensive. Help lower your energy bills by making a few simple, yet affordable, changes.

Found at: http://0-search.proquest.com.books.redlands.edu/docview/1366352614/fulltextPDF?accountid=14729

A study by David Watson evaluates the effectiveness of different survey methods for birds.  Titled Comparative Evaluation of New Approaches to Survey Birds, it focuses comparing new methods to survey avifauna diversity.

In the study he compares two emerging methods, which he himself devised for measuring bird diversity, and two methods that are used widely in the field today by Australian Ornithologists or Ecologists. To determine which method was the most successful he compared the results of the tests to the discrete count; or the actual richness. He analyzed the benefits and the drawbacks of sac method as well.  He conducted the study on four different preserve plots in grassy box woodlands in areas of Albury and New South Wales.  The plots which were chosen were varied in size so as to best determine if a specific method is better suited to a specific sized plot.

David found that of the four sampling methods his new method of strict standardized search yielded the most complete results of 78.4 percent completeness. This method involved 20 minutes searches, and after three consecutive searches yielded no new species  you were to stop sampling.  Another stopped rule was applied to his second new method, which although its completeness was only 72.5 percent, it took half the time of the strict standardized search making it much more efficient.  Lenient standardized search stopping rule was simply stop when the number of species seen in a single sample period were equal to the species seen in two sampling periods.

Compared two the two older methods of repeat transect and time-balanced area-proportionate transects the two standardized methods were clearly the better methods.  Repeat transect only producing 33.8 percent completion, which the TBAPT produced only 37.1 percent competition.  So all in all his new survey methods were much more effective at determining the diversity of the avifauna of the preserves than were the methods in use by most ornithologists in 2004.

In this research study the presence of the metal selenium was simulated in the North San Francisco Bay, which is the largest estuary on the Pacific coastline. Selenium is a metal commonly used in electronic and photocopier components but also in glass, rubber, textiles, medical therapeutic agents and petroleum. Some of the main sources of selenium in water is discharge from petroleum and metal refineries, from mines, as well as erosion of natural deposits. Possible health effects of long term use of drinking water contaminated with selenium are fingernail or hair loss and problems with blood circulation. This particular study considers point and non-point sources of selenium, transport and mixing of selenium, transformations between different types of selenium, the distribution of different types of dissolved and particulate selenium, and biological absorbance by phytoplankton, bivalves (mollusks), and then higher organisms within the food chain. The model used in the bay to simulate selenium concentrations also was able to represent salinity, suspended material and chlorophyll within different flow conditions, and compared to longer-term data, over a 15-year period. The study also looked at the relationship between the amount of selenium being put into the bay and variations in inflow, in-bay concentrations, as well as biological concentrations in order to manage the impacts on wildlife in the area.

The research topic is selenium’s concentrations in water and how that effects other aspects of the San Francisco Bay. The study asks the research question; how would the presence of the metal selenium, in different forms and concentrations, effect the wildlife food chains within the San Francisco Bay? The data type needed to answer this question would be aggregate interval or ratio data taken from water samples. Selenium was simulated into the water and then effects of the metal were analyzed through water samples as well as observation of phytoplankton and other forms of wildlife in the bay. Models were created to show what effect the metal had on the Bay.

This particular study was hard to understand, the article used a lot of big words that could not be universally comprehended. In addition, there was not enough background on the metal selenium and where it comes from.

Chen, L., Meseck, S. L., Roy, S. B., Grieb, T. M., & Baginska, B. (2012). Modeling fate, transport, and biological uptake of selenium in north san francisco bay. Estuaries and Coasts, 35(6), 1551-1570. doi:http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/s12237-012-9530-y